The Museum of Oriental Ceramics,Osaka

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One of the recent archaeological findings on the Korean peninsula has been the discovery of new evidence related to the origins of earthenware pottery. Although it goes without saying that the history of ceramics begins with primitive earthenware of the prehistoric period, until recently it was generally accepted that the oldest Korean pottery was earthenware with a combed design. Between 1969 and 1971, however, undecorated earthenware with pointed or rounded base and flat-based earthenware with a design of raised ridges were discovered in a lower stratum than combed pottery at Dongsam-dong shell mound in Youngdo-gu, Busan-si. These artifacts have clearly distinct features from combed-design ware and, judging from the layer where they were found and the stone implements dug up with them, they are thought to belong to an older cultural level. Based on carbon-14 dating assigning them to the fourth millennium B.C., they considerably predate earthenware with combed pattern, which is thought to have been influenced by northwest Siberia. Because such earthenware, called "proto-combed earthenware", has been found at Nampo-hang shell mound in Hamkyungbuk-do and Shinam-ri, Gyeongsangnam-do as well as Dongsam-dong, this oldest of Korean ceramic cultures is thought to have spanned a wide area. Found among these artifacts, earthenware decorated with applied beans resembles pottery fragments discovered at excavations at Senpukuji Cave and Fukui Cave in Nagasaki Prefecture, which are regarded as the oldest earthenware in Japan. These similarities raise extremely interesting questions about the history of trade between Japan and the Korean peninsula.

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Combed earthenware typifies Neolithic ceramics on the Korean peninsula. It was given this name in 1930 by FUJITA Ryosaku on the grounds that it resembled “Kammkeramik” of northern Eurasia, from which it is a direct translation. By definition, Kammkeramik must have two or more lines or dotted lines running parallel to one another. Subsequent studies, however, have uncovered certain pottery that does not necessarily adhere to these criteria. Furthermore, it has gradually become clear that these wares are essentially different from Kammkeramik. For these reasons, some experts feel that they should be called "decorated earthenware" or "earthenware with a geometric design" instead. Be that as it may, combed earthenware on the Korean peninsula has direct ties to the culture that originated in far off Scandinavia, passed over the Ural Mountains, and spread throughout Siberia. A typical combed pottery culture did not develop in northeast China, because the transmission of the culture from north to south is thought to have occurred so rapidly that there was no time for it to take root there. Although combed earthenware has significant geographical and chronological variants, basically its features are a semi-ovoid shape with a pointed base, a pattern of short oblique lines around the rim, and slanted latticework or herringbone designs on the body either incised or stamped with seashells or fragments of bone. It dates roughly from the third millennium B.C. to the beginning of the first millennium B.C., and it is thought to have been made widely almost throughout the Korean peninsula.

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During the first millennium B.C. ― the period that corresponds more or less to the Bronze Age on the Korean peninsula ― the predominant form of pottery was plain coarse earthenware. Many of the finds are reddish-brown pottery with little or no decoration and a flat base. They show no signs that a potter's wheel had been used, and most were made either by hand building or coiling. The distribution indicates close ties with northeast China, especially the area that spans from the Liao He River in the west to the Amur River and Songhua River in the east, and clearly constitutes a different cultural sphere from that of combed earthenware. This undecorated earthenware would eventually spread even further to the east to form the matrix of Yayoi pottery in Japan.

At sites containing undecorated earthenware, archaeologists have frequently unearthed burnished black or red earthenware that show Chinese influence. The black wares were influenced by the Longshan culture and have also been found in the central and southern parts of the peninsula, primarily around Hamkyungbuk-do, indicating fairly extensive distribution. Unlike Chinese black wares, however, the potter's wheel was not used, and few pieces have polished surfaces. The red earthenware is a variant of the painted earthenware of the Yangshao culture, but the fact that none has been found at sites in the northern part of the peninsula, especially in the area facing the Yellow Sea, raises questions about the route of cultural diffusion from China.

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The period from around the first century A D. to the end of the third century A D, is called the period of the Three Han States or period of the Proto Three Kingdoms. Stoneware has been developed from this period. They are hard-textured pottery produced by high-temperature firing and decorated with paddled cord-marked designs or latticework. Since it is known that both the potter's wheel and the climbing kiln were used in their making, they are considered to be the forerunners of Silla ware. This period is thought to mark the transition from earthenware to stoneware.

From the fourth century to the latter half of the seventh century, Goguryeo ruled in the north, and Silla and Baekje in the south, giving rise to the name of the Three Kingdoms period. In the area along the basin of the Nakdong River, however, the Gaya confederacy continued to exist until the first half of the sixth century. Because Gaya was not in any way inferior in cultural development to the other three kingdoms, it is probably appropriate to mention it in addition to the three kingdoms as a state flourished during the Three Kingdoms period.

Although the number or variety of extant materials may not be enough for classification, the ceramic wares of the Three Kingdoms period can be roughly divided into two categories: soft-bodied gray earthenware and hard-bodied gray stoneware. Based on these two types, each kingdom developed its own distinctive types of ware.

1）Goguryeo

Ceramics produced in Goguryeo, the capital city of which was Pyongyang, were more strongly influenced by Han dynasty earthenware than were those of the other kingdoms because of the kingdom’s geographical location. Thus, although soft-bodied gray earthenware predominated the production, some burnished black wares can also be found. Similarly, painted wares, though few in number, were also made. One of the outstanding achievements of Goguryeo ceramics was the production of yellow-glazed wares, the distinctive feature of which was the prevalence of four-handled jars.

2）Baekje

The capital of Baekje was first located near present-day Seoul, but was later moved to Gongju and then to Buyeo. The hard-bodied gray stoneware that predominated during this period is thought to have carried on the tradition of stoneware produced in the Proto Three Kingdoms period. In addition, soft-bodied reddish-brown earthenware and burnished black wares similar to those from Goguryeo were also produced. Around the seventh century, in the latter half of the Buyeo period, green-glazed ware began to be made. An example of this is the long-necked green-glazed bottle housed in the Tokyo National Museum, whose beautiful glaze color, vessel shape and applied design all show the high level of technical achievement at that time. We must note not only the advances in earthenware and stoneware made in Baekje but also the discovery of Chinese Yue celadon from Baekje tumuli which includes: the ewer with chicken spout and the jar with dish-shaped mouth from Hwasung-ri, Sungnam-myon, Chunan-si, Chungcheongnam-do; the sheep-shaped vessel from Tomb No. 2, Bubchun-ri, Buron-myon, Wonju-si, Kangwon-do; the wide-mouthed six-handled jar, long-necked four-handled jar and the lamp stand from the tomb of King Muryeong at Songsan-ri, Gongju-eup, Gongju-gun, Chungcheongnam-do. These findings eloquently attest to Baekje's active trade with southern China.

3）Old Silla and Gaya

Because Old Silla developed in the area around Gyeongju, and the Gaya States along the lower reaches of the Nakdong River, there are many similarities between the potteries they produced, which are quite unlike the earthenware of Goguryeo and show some differences with those of Baekje as well.

While soft-bodied red earthenware is universally found in these regions, hard-bodied gray stoneware was also made in large quantities. The shapes and designs were diverse, some of which being extremely elaborate. Also worth noting in this period is the mortuary pottery such as clay figurines and unusual, sculptural earthenware in the form of wheels, ducks, and figures on horseback. The distinctive modeling of these pieces is outstanding among ancient earthenware.

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In 668, Silla’s annexation of Gaya followed by the conquest of Baekje and then Goguryeo, led to unification of the entire Korean peninsula. The Unified Silla period spanned nearly 270 years, from 668 until 935 when Gyeongsun, the last king of Silla, surrendered to Goryeo. During that time, a large cultural entity was created, which was strongly influenced by the culture of Tang China. This was also the period of the ascendancy of Buddhism, which entered a golden age in the eighth century. The Bulguksa temple and cave shrine are the representative architecture of this period and still convey a sense of the spirit of Silla aesthetics. Buddhist influence is clearly recognizable in ceramics as well, such as in mortuary urns. In the eighth century, these urns were made in hard-bodied unglazed gray stoneware, the entire surface of which was decorated with stamped designs to achieve a distinctive ornamental effect. Several mortuary urns were also made to which low-temperature lead glazes in yellowish brown or yellowish green were applied. At present, not enough mortuary pottery has been excavated to clarify the process of evolution. Special note should be made, however, of the 20,000 artifacts, including nearly 2,000 pieces of pottery, excavated at Anapji in Inwang-dong, Gyeongju City in 1975 and 1976 as part of the city's comprehensive urban development plan in the 1970s. The pottery discovered there were chiefly wares for everyday use, but some previously unknown forms have been found, adding new evidence of richness to the ceramics produced during the Unified Silla period.

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From the establishment of the kingdom in 918 until its collapse in 1392, the Goryeo period lasted for 475 years. During this period, astonishing progress was made in ceramic technology, and a golden age in the history of Korean ceramics was ushered in. The Goryeo period is regarded as the era when the technological foundations were laid, especially for celadon. The origins of Goryeo celadon wares are still not entirely clear, but today it is generally accepted that they developed under the influence of Chinese Yue ware. One of the main production sites for Goryeo celadon during its golden age was Sadang-ri, Daegu-myon, Kangjin-gun, Chunranam-do. From the more than 150 kiln sites in the vicinity, it is possible to continuously trace the evolution of these celadon wares from the early period to the final years. The kiln sites at Youngun-ri, Daegu-myon are thought to be one of the oldest, and large quantities of artifacts resembling Yue ware have been found there. Yue ware and Goryeo celadon with carved designs such as a pair of parrots and broad, so-called “snake’s-eye” foot rims are so alike that it is difficult to distinguish between them. Similar “snake’s-eye” foot rims have also been found at a white porcelain kiln complex at Seo-ri, Edong-myon, Yongin-gun, Gyeonggi-do. Bowls with a “snake’s-eye” foot rim can be found at Yue kilns in China from around the eighth century during the Tang dynasty to the Five Dynasties period. Opinions vary, however, as to when this aspect of China's ceramic techniques was introduced in Korea, ranging from the first half of the ninth century to the first half of the eleventh century. Although there are no irrefragable proofs to substantiate any of these theories, it is generally accepted at the present stage that the technique was transmitted to Korea during the first half of the tenth century. Perhaps it might be conjectured that this development coincided with the establishment of the "ceramics factory" which assumed responsibility for pottery production during the Goryeo period. It has recently become clear that special products such as ceramics were produced at such factories under royal control. These are believed to have been established in the mid-tenth century. At any rate, the conditions necessary for celadon production were fully in place by the tenth century.

Until the latter half of the eleventh century, Korea's formal trade with China had been put off in view of ties with Khitan, but Goryeo restored relations with the Song dynasty. During this period, the products of the Song dynasty were imported extensively into Korea. Various Chinese techniques including those of Ru and Ding wares as well as Yue ware were adopted, laying the basis for advances in Korean ceramics, which would reach its zenith in the twelfth century.

In 1123 Xu Jing, a member of a Chinese delegation to Gaeseong, the capital of Goryeo, made several references to the ceramics of the time in his celebrated travel diary Gaoli Tujing (The Illustrated Report on Gaoli, Gaoli being the Chinese name of Goryeo). According to this work, Goryeo wares included beautiful celadon wares called "jade-colored" or "kingfisher-colored" which were even more highly esteemed than gilt wares or silver wares. The book also mentions that among them were those decorated with miraculously elaborate carved patterns, and that some of them resembled Chinese Ding and Ru wares. Lending support to these observations are examples of celadon with extraordinarily beautiful jade-colored glaze excavated from royal tombs, which are dated from the first half of the twelfth century. Around the same time, celadon wares with distinctive inlaid designs were created. Although the inlay technique is found in Chinese ceramics of the Tang period, examples are extremely rare. Therefore, inlaid celadon, which came to dominate Korean ceramic production between the mid-twelfth century and the end of the fourteenth century, ought to be considered a decorative technique unique to Goryeo. Black and white inlaid designs under a celadon glaze render elegance that is bright and subdued. Fine examples of celadon with jade-colored glaze or inlaid designs were produced chiefly in two areas, Sadang-ri, Daegu-myon, Kangjin-gun, Chunranam-do and Yuchun-ri, Boan-myon, Buan-gun, Chunrabuk-do. From the twelfth to the thirteenth centuries, various other decorative techniques for celadon were also created, including underglaze iron-slip painting, underglaze white- slip painting, underglaze copper-red painting, iron-slip coating, marbling, and gilt decoration. Likewise, though few in number, some outstanding examples of white porcelain were made at Yuchun-ri.

Successive Mongol invasions tormented the Goryeo dynasty since 1231, which forced the Goryeo court to relocate its capital to Ganghwa-do Island. Despite these difficulties, large quantities of inlaid celadon were made until the end of the fourteenth century. The official kilns also continued to survive at least until the period between 1365 and 1374, a fact that can be surmised from celadon dishes with the mark "Jung rung" referring to the imperial tomb of the wife of the Goryeo king, Gongmin. All aspects of these wares ― coarse materials, modeling and decorative techniques and firing techniques ― indicate signs of decline, and eventually they gave way to the buncheong ware of the Joseon period.

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A detailed history of Joseon ceramics is yet to be written because there is still not enough evidence to trace all the stages in the development and decline of ceramic production during the long history of the Joseon dynasty, which began in 1392 and ended in 1910. A broad survey of this long, 500-year span, however, reveals a number of styles ― buncheong ware, white porcelain, inlaid white porcelain, blue-and-white ware, black-glazed ware, ash-glazed ware, slip glazed ware, and so on. Among them, two are known to have achieved prominence: buncheong ware and white porcelain. Although buncheong ware ceased to be made midway through the period, the production of white porcelain continued unabated right up until the end of the Joseon dynasty and was accompanied by a number of subsidiary trends, including blue-and-white ware and white porcelain painted with design in iron-brown or copper red.

Buncheong ware is one of wares made extensively during the first half of the Joseon period. The term “buncheong”, popularly used in the West, is an abbreviation of the Korean phrase for bunjang hoecheong sagi (powdered gray-green ceramic ware), given to this type of ceramics in 1940 by the Korean art historian, KO Yusop. In Japan the ware is usually called mishima, although sometimes a distinction is made between mishima and hakeme (brush-marked design). The production of buncheong ware carried on the techniques of Goryeo celadon in the sense that it too was made from a clay body containing some iron, which was covered with a glaze that resembled celadon glaze and fired at high temperature. In fact, it is so difficult to distinguish between Goryeo inlaid celadon and buncheong ware with an inlaid design that future research may necessitate a revision of the current chronology. The application of underglaze white slip, on which a number of different techniques were used to make designs, distinguishes most buncheong ware from Goryeo celadon. The designs themselves complete the transformation, revealing the completely fresh decorative sense of the Joseon dynasty. Buncheong ware can be divided into the following categories according to the types of design used:

• 1．Inlay (linear inlay, planar inlay, reverse inlay)
• 2．Stamped design
• 3．White-slip decoration (hakeme or brush-mark made in white slip), design applied on a white-slip background (sgraffito, incised designs, iron-brown painted designs)
• 4．Kohiki (overall slip coating)

In the first half of the fifteenth century, an office called the Sawon assumed control of ceramic production. Under this institution, according to the official annals, the Sejong Sillok Jiriji (Geographical Appendix to the Veritable Records of King Sejong), there was a total of 324 subsidiary ceramic factories, 139 for porcelain and 185 for stoneware. There are different opinions at present as to what sorts of ceramics were made at each kiln. However, it seems to be indisputable that white porcelain was produced at some specific "porcelain kiln".

Korean white porcelain, especially those produced in the fifteenth century, incorporated Chinese techniques to create luminous pure white porcelain for court use or tribute to China. In a collection of essays called Yongje Ch’onghwa published in the latter half of the fifteenth century, it is noted that court utensils in the reign of Sejong (1419-1450) were chiefly white porcelain. Of the 139 porcelain factories, the production of the best-quality white porcelain was limited to three places, Gwangju in Gyeonggi-do, Sangju and Goryung in Gyeongsang-do, but eventually a shortage of fine-quality white clay led to a ban on the use of white porcelain by the general public in the latter-half of the fifteenth century. Around the mid-fifteenth century, white porcelain with underglaze cobalt-blue design, in other words, blue-and-white ware was made at Doma-ri, Jungbu-myon, Gwangju-gun, one of the official kilns at Gwangju and some other places. Records survive that artists from the academy in the capital were sent there to decorate these wares. The exquisite brushwork of some of the designs of plum, bamboo and pine tree, and the fresh spirit they display amply support these claims. Such works were all intended for court use and were not mass-produced for the general public.

The conditions of ceramic production in the sixteenth century cannot be surmised from the evidence available and will have to await the discovery of more detailed information.

The nearly forty years, from the Japanese invasions in the years of Imjin (1592) and Jeongyu (1597) to the wars of the years of Jeongmyo (1627) and Byeongja (1636) were the dark ages of the history of the Joseon dynasty. They were a time of political, economic, social, and cultural stagnation. It was also a period of serious dislocations in the production of ceramics, and around this time the overall situation completely changed. The greatest change was the disappearance of buncheong ware, which had flourished during the preceding period, being replaced by white porcelain. While kilns producing white porcelain sprang up everywhere and coarse white porcelain was made, the official kilns became centered on the Gwangju region, Gyeonggi-do. The design, form and glaze color of these white porcelain and blue-and-white wares differed from those of the preceding era. The blue-and-white wares in particular established aesthetics that was unique to the Joseon dynasty and completely independent of Chinese influence. Recent meticulous studies by CHONG Yangmo of the National Museum of Korea and YUN Yongi clarify the actual conditions at the official kilns in Gwangju between the first half of the seventeenth century and the eighteenth century, thus contributing greatly to elucidate the nature of Korean ceramics in the middle Joseon period. In the seventeenth century, white porcelain with underglaze iron-painted designs flourished at Gwangju and at Gesan, Chungcheongbuk-do, etc. By the beginning of the eighteenth century, white porcelain with underglaze copper-red designs were also being made, but their production sites have not yet been located.

In 1752, the official kilns were moved from Kumsa-ri, Namjong-myon, Gwangju-gun, Gyeonggi-do to Buwong-ri. The period from this year to 1883, when jurisdiction over the Buwong-ri kilns was transferred to private hands, is known as the latter half of the Joseon period. A wide variety of techniques was developed at the Buwong-ri kilns. One of the causes for such development was undoubtedly the stimulation from the prosperity of Qing China during the Qianlong period (1736-1795). The fact that Joseon was being ruled by great kings such as Yeongjo (1725-1776) and Jeongjo (1777-1800) at that time could also be an element for technical expansion. Abundance of cobalt pigment due to thriving importation from China contributed to the popularity of blue-and-white ware. Ceramics were widely made as food or wine vessels, stationary holders as well as cosmetic containers, side plates of pillows, candlesticks, sundials, scales, flowerpots and smoking utensils. Design motifs proliferated, and painting techniques became excessively elaborate. The techniques such as underglaze iron-brown or copper-red painting or cobalt-blue coating were used either alone or in combination, aiming at new decorative effects. In the second half of the nineteenth century, invasions by the US, France, and Japan and other foreign powers threw the government into confusion. In 1883, Buwong-ri kilns, the last fortress of the Gwangju official kilns, were transferred to private hands, putting an end to a glorious history that had lasted over 500 years.

(Director Emeritus and Curatorial Advisor, The Museum of Oriental Ceramics, Osaka)